This is a rudimentary translation of articles from my book “Goddess Culture in Israel“. While it is far from ideal, it serves a purpose given the significance of the topic and the distinctiveness of the information contained. I have chosen to publish it in its current state, with the hope that a more refined translation will be available in the future.

Goddess Representations

With the emergence of the Goddess culture, we find figurines and depictions of humans, possibly symbolizing the gods. Until then, humans were represented in the form of animals (for example, with horns), alongside animals, or within the context of animals, with only a few depictions of humans alone, both in paintings and figurines. The shift to agriculture and settled living places greater emphasis, akin to the Renaissance period 11,000 years later, on humanity. Gods begin to appear in human form, predominantly in the shape of Goddess figurines.

According to Eliade, Neolithic art, associated with the Goddess culture, diverges from the naturalistic expressions found in cave paintings and instead focuses on symbolism, primarily centered around depictions of goddesses. This art reflects a complex and advanced society residing in sizable settlements, evidenced by the proliferation of figurines. The human body becomes the primary subject of artistic expression, serving as a symbolic rather than purely physical representation. Through various representations such as statues and paintings, we glean insights into the multifaceted qualities of the Goddess.

The art of the Goddess culture reflects all aspects of human life and the natural cycles. As the creator of plants, animals, and humans, the Goddess embodies the essence to which everything returns. Consequently, depictions of the human body in this art are not portrayed in a naturalistic manner but rather emphasize its spiritual significance. Abstract or exaggerated representations, often intertwined with animal, inanimate, and plant characteristics, convey the profound connection between humanity and nature. This transition from naturalistic rock paintings of early humans to the religious art of the Goddess serves to honor and serve the divine feminine presence.

According to Moshe Shtekalis [1], regarded as the father of Israeli prehistory, the Neolithic society, characterized by the Goddess culture, was primarily agricultural, focusing on the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals. In this society, fertility was not only associated with humans and animals but also extended to the land and its productivity. Therefore, it is widely accepted among researchers that the depiction of women in Neolithic art, representing the Goddess culture, serves as a prototype of the “mother Goddess” or the “great Goddess,” embodying the concept of fertility in all its dimensions.

The discoveries of numerous Goddess figurines across the Balkans played a crucial role in Maria Gimbutas’ understanding of the religious beliefs within the Goddess culture. Examining the consistent features of these figurines, such as their large eyes, alongside the locations and contexts in which they were found, provided Gimbutas with valuable insights into the ancient beliefs. Similarly, the abundance of Goddess figurines found in Israel today offers researchers an opportunity to reconstruct the worldview and religious practices of the ancient cultures in the region.

In Tamar Noy’s seminal work, “The Human Figure in Prehistoric Art in the Land of Israel,” [2] she highlights the emergence of human figurines coinciding with the advent of agriculture and the shift to permanent settlements. Noy posits that this cultural shift began as early as the Natufian period. She argues that these figurines were not merely products of artistic inspiration, but rather expressions of the spirit and faith of the individuals who created them. According to Noy, they served as stylized representations of the values perceived as symbolic by the community as a whole. In crafting these figurines, their creators were guided by an ideological perception rooted in the societal values of their time and place. In essence, the figurines found in Israel offer insights into the religious beliefs of their makers, portraying humans in the likeness of the divine—perhaps reflecting the image of the Goddess herself.

One of the predominant manifestations of the Goddess is depicted in the form of a fertility figure. Typically portrayed with voluminous hips, she is often depicted seated, with her ample hips facilitating her posture. Frequently, she is depicted holding one breast with her left hand while gesturing toward her thigh with her right hand. These representations of the Goddess are commonly crafted from clay or wood and can be found in numerous archaeological sites dating back to the Yarmukian culture and beyond. Interestingly, similar figures have been discovered in distant locales such as Malta. During the advent of agriculture, particularly in the pre-ceramic Neolithic era, these seated fertility Goddess figures were prevalent, symbolizing the fecundity and abundance associated with the divine feminine.

Indeed, the depiction of the fertility Goddess encompasses various forms and attributes, not limited to a seated posture. Among these representations, one notable characteristic is the prominence of large breasts or ample buttocks, or sometimes both. The enlarged breasts symbolize the nurturing and life-giving power of the Goddess, with one breast representing nourishment and the other vitality. In some depictions, while the breasts may be modest in size, emphasis is placed on the buttocks and pelvis, symbolizing the capacity for giving life and sustenance. The buttocks, often resembling an egg or featuring distinct markings, signify the genesis of life and the transformative power of creation. Occasionally, they are depicted as doubled or divided, symbolizing the concept of one (pregnant woman) turning into two (giving birth), thus underscoring the Goddess’s inherent potency and creative force. In the ethos of Goddess culture, womanhood is revered as the source of life, mirroring the fecundity and generative energy of the Earth itself.

Indeed, another aspect of Goddess symbolism pertains to sexuality, often depicted through the emphasis on the female genitalia. Many of the figurines exhibit an exaggerated portrayal of the vagina, the anatomical symbol of feminine fertility and creation. This representation may take the form of a schematic triangle, either empty or filled with dots, or it might manifest as an abstract line or a budding branch, symbolizing the generative power of life. Occasionally, the depiction of the vagina is rendered in its natural form, often exaggerated in size to underscore its significance. Moreover, a handful of erotic figurines have been discovered, further highlighting the celebration of sexuality and fertility within Goddess culture.

The triangle, symbolizing the female genital organ, holds profound significance within Goddess culture. It frequently manifests in various forms, such as stones adorned with symbols like chevrons, waves, dots, or lines, with the triangle often featuring a central opening resembling a vagina. In some instances, the triangles are subtly integrated into the poses and anatomical features of Goddess figurines, where the hands may form triangular shapes when touching the body or head. Throughout the history of Israel, certain cultures emphasized the Goddess through the depiction of triangles, evident in Human figurines, stones, and particularly in triangular clay altars and Matzevot. Occasionally, representations of the Goddess may feature two triangles arranged atop each other, their pointed ends converging, symbolizing aspects of the divine feminine.

There are other types of figurines as well. Stiff, white, slim Goddesses were often found accompanying the deceased in graves. These figurines, predominantly crafted from bone or stone, are characterized by their hands joined or held close to the body, mirroring the posture of the deceased. They typically feature small breasts, indistinct faces, and a schematic representation of the body, suggesting a lack of vitality. These figures symbolize the death aspect of the Goddess, serving as companions to humans during transitions to other realms. Occasionally, these figurines feature masks covering the face, devoid of any discernible facial features except for a prominent nose.

Masks were primarily associated with forces beyond the human realm and with death itself. They emerged with the advent of the Goddess culture. Alongside masks depicted on figurines, we find stone masks used in ceremonies and placed upon the deceased in graves. Additionally, plaster and clay masks were created by covering skulls with plaster or clay and inserting objects such as shells or small stones in place of the eyes, ears, mouth, and nose. This unconventional recreation of the deceased’s face can be observed in artifacts unearthed from sites like Bismun in the Hula Valley and Jericho. Such practices enabled the departed to commune with external forces crucial for their journey into the afterlife.

Throughout the various periods of the Goddess culture’s existence, different aspects of her were emphasized. Initially, she was portrayed as a Goddess of fertility. However, towards the end of this era, particularly in the Chalcolithic period, she often appeared in an abstract form as a death Goddess. This representation is seen in the form of flat violin figurines, lacking breasts but with an emphasized triangular genital region. This shift may be attributed to a religious change during that time, which placed greater emphasis on the concept of life after death. This shift also influenced changes in burial customs. Consequently, the Goddess’s pivotal role during this period was associated with her responsibility for death and rebirth.

In Israel, there are several noteworthy museums dedicated to the Goddess culture, some of which are associated with nearby archaeological sites. For instance, at Shaar Hagolan, there is a museum showcasing artifacts from the Yarmukian culture. In Ma’ayan Baruch, there’s a museum featuring finds from the Hula Valley, while in Haifa, the Museum of Prehistory, named after Moshe Shtekalis, primarily exhibits discoveries from the Carmel region. However, the most significant museum in this regard is arguably the Israel Museum, where visitors can explore extensive collections of Goddess figurines spanning various periods in the archaeological display within the prehistoric rooms.

Domestication of Animals

Indeed, the intertwining of human figures with animal characteristics in Goddess figurines underscores the deep connection between humanity and the animal kingdom. Across various cultures and regions, certain animals became closely associated with the Goddess, symbolizing different aspects of her power and influence. In Israel and other parts of the world, these animals include fish, snakes, frogs, pigs, dogs, bears, deer, cows, and birds of prey, particularly the owl. Each animal carried its own symbolic significance, enriching the tapestry of the Goddess’s divine presence in the natural world..

The symbolism of fish in Goddess culture is profound and multifaceted. As denizens of water, fish embody the mystery and miracle of birth, mirroring the womb-like environment where new life emerges. Their sudden appearance underscores the concept of creation and emergence, symbolizing the cyclical nature of life and rebirth. Additionally, the abundant reproductive capacity of fish serves as a potent metaphor for the fertility and abundance associated with the Goddess. Archaeological findings, such as those from Lepenski Vir, depict figurines portraying women with fish-like features, offering tangible evidence of this symbolic connection. Similarly, ancient mythologies like those of Sumeria and Greece feature beings blending human and fish characteristics, reinforcing the link between the Goddess and aquatic realms. This symbolism extends beyond mere representation, as the Goddess is revered as the sovereign of seas, rivers, and lakes, embodying the generative forces of water and life.

Water held significance beyond its association with fish; it also embodied the symbolism of frogs, revered as sacred creatures in Goddess culture. The frog’s amphibious nature, dwelling both in water and on land, mirrors the dual aspects of the Goddess herself, embodying youth and age, fertility and death. Depictions of the Goddess often reflect this duality, with some featuring double heads, as seen in ancient sculptures unearthed in Israel, such as those found in Ein Ghazal. The frog’s rapid reproductive cycle, transitioning from tadpole to adult, symbolized not only fertility but also the transformative power of sexuality. Its ability to seemingly emerge out of nowhere further emphasizes its association with creation and emergence. Therefore, being likened to a frog was considered a compliment during Goddess culture. Figurines depicting frog Goddesses, often featuring accentuated genital organs, have been discovered in various parts of the world, including Anatolia from the 7th millennium BC. Over time, however, the frog became associated with witchcraft and the cult of witches, evolving from its earlier symbolism within Goddess culture.

Snakes, too, held a significant place within the context of water, as some species could dwell and navigate through aquatic environments. Moreover, their sinuous movement evoked the fluidity of water. However, their primary association was with regeneration, healing, and the cycle of life and death—concepts central to the realm of the Goddess. Snakes, by hibernating in winter and reemerging in summer, symbolized renewal. Yet, their most profound symbolism lay in the shedding of their old skin, representing the hope for spiritual rebirth facilitated by the Goddess. This shedding process was seen as a metaphor for the human soul shedding its mortal coil and transitioning into the spiritual realm upon death—a concept deeply intertwined with the Goddess’s domain. Therefore, snakes were often regarded as embodiments of ancestral spirits. Additionally, while snakes possess venom that can cause harm, they were also believed to possess healing properties, embodying the duality of life and death, creation and destruction, under the Goddess’s purview.

The snake holds a deeply ingrained place in our collective subconscious, dating back to the earliest days of humanity, and it has frequently appeared in art and mythology throughout history. In Goddess culture, the snake often manifests in various forms within figurines and artistic representations. Sometimes, the Goddess is depicted with snake-like characteristics, such as a woman seated in a yoga pose with round eyes and an elongated mouth. Other depictions feature Human figures with wide mouths and protruding teeth reminiscent of snakes, as seen in examples like the Goddess from Bashan Street in Tel Aviv. Moreover, snake imagery frequently adorns clay vessels, particularly on their handles, serving as symbols of the snake Goddess. These symbols take the form of spirals, zigzags, and wavy lines, mimicking the sinuous movement of the serpent. Such depictions underscore the enduring significance of the snake archetype within Goddess culture, representing themes of transformation, renewal, and spiritual power.

Birds play a significant role in Goddess culture, symbolizing birth and the miraculous emergence of life from inert matter, emblematic of the Goddess’s extraordinary fertility. Ancient Goddess figurines, like the Venus of Shaar Hagolan, often depict Human forms with egg-shaped elements, highlighting the connection between life and creation. Additionally, birds, with their ability to traverse the skies, serve as intermediaries between different realms, bridging earthly and celestial domains. This idea is reflected in depictions of the Goddess with avian characteristics, particularly those of specific bird species such as ducks, swans, crows, owls, hawks, and others. These bird Goddess figurines typically feature beak-like noses, exaggerated buttocks, wing-like hands, and other bird-like attributes, symbolizing the Goddess’s association with the heavens and her role in nurturing and refining the earth.

Birds of prey, particularly eagles, held significant symbolic importance in Goddess culture, representing not only aspects of life and fertility but also death and decay. This duality mirrors the Goddess’s role as the controller of life cycles, encompassing both creation and destruction. Evidence of this association can be found in artifacts like flutes made from eagle bones, which symbolize the scavenger birds consuming decaying bodies. Additionally, discoveries such as an eagle’s wing in the witch’s grave at Nahal Hilazon suggest the reverence for these birds in burial practices. Some researchers propose that bodies were placed in open-air temples to be consumed by eagles, with the removal of flesh considered integral to the burial ritual’s completion. Similar representations of eagles and temple structures have been found in sites like Çatalhöyük in Turkey, underscoring the cultural significance of these birds in Goddess worship.

The owl held significant symbolism in Goddess culture, valued not only for its scavenging abilities but also for its keen sensitivity and adeptness in navigating darkness. Representing awareness, sensitivity, and attentiveness, the owl embodied qualities cherished and fostered by the Goddess. Depictions of owl eyes are found in paintings dating back to the Chalcolithic period, underscoring its importance in ancient iconography. Even in later periods, figures such as the Greek Goddess Athena and the Jewish Goddess Lilith were associated with the owl, further cementing its enduring significance across different cultures and epochs.

Domesticated animals, particularly the dog, held a significant place in Goddess culture. It is believed that dogs were already domesticated during the Natufian culture, as evidenced by their presence in tombs, indicating their religious importance and association with processes occurring after death. Dogs likely symbolized the realm beyond, but they also possessed another vital quality: their magnetic nature. Dogs often formed strong attachments to their homes and owners, and their barking during the full moon, which was seen as the great magnet in the sky orchestrating all things and controlling the cycles of time, further emphasized their magnetic properties. This magnetic attribute was viewed as an expression of the order and cyclical nature of the world, reflecting the healing and guiding power attributed to Mother Earth. Thus, the dog came to symbolize this aspect of the Goddess.

The pig, particularly the sow, was another domestic animal associated with the moon, symbolizing its influence and power. Sows are known for their rapid weight gain during pregnancy, which was seen as analogous to the full moon. They were also connected to the ripening of fruits and crops, representing the fertilizing power of nature. Sows were viewed as benefactors of wheat germination and childbirth. Many figurines depicting the sow Goddess were discovered near bread ovens. Some of these figurines contained grains of wheat, while others were made from clay mixed with flour, indicating that these representations were not mere toys but religious objects imbued with symbolic significance.

Animals with prominent horns, such as the gazelle, ibex, and deer, were associated with the Goddess. The deer, although typically found in northern regions, also inhabited the Carmel region of ancient Israel. The ibex, on the other hand, thrived in southern regions and desert environments, while the gazelle was common in both the north and south, with several subspecies. These animals held significance as game animals for early humans and were a primary source of food, possibly contributing to their perceived sacredness. While initially representing the “lord of animals,” a deity of hunters, the symbolism of their antlers later shifted to symbolize the Goddess.

The shedding and regrowth of deer antlers in the fall and spring respectively symbolized the cyclic nature of the seasons, mirroring the natural rhythms of life. The branched form of the antlers also represented the concept of the tree of life. While gazelle antlers remained straight and permanent, the seasonal changes in the hair around them symbolized the cycle of change, much like the antlers of the deer. Change, a fundamental attribute of the Goddess, was thus embodied in both. Furthermore, horns were associated with the moon, as discussed in the chapter on the symbolism of the moon. The moon, regarded as the weaver of the universe and the connecting female force, lent additional significance to the symbolism of horns.

According to Rappengluck [3]: “all over the world the deer was an astral symbol, often solar and sometimes lunar, indicating the cycles of time and the lunar or solar year. It heralded the sunrise especially in autumn, its antlers symbolized the cycle of life from birth to death and the revival of nature, attributed to the cosmic tree of life, which was identified with the Milky Way. Therefore, the deer was associated with the power of cosmic creation.” In essence, the ancients recognized the alignment among the sidereal year, the solar and lunar cycles, the rhythms of animals, and the growth patterns of their horns and hair, all integral to the essence of the Goddess.

The cow and the bear were also symbols of the Goddess. While the cow wasn’t initially domesticated during the agricultural revolution, it likely held significance as a totem animal, as evidenced in sites like Çatalhöyük. Sheep and goats were the first to be domesticated, followed by oxen and cows, elevating the cow’s status and association with the Goddess over time. Its importance continued to grow, particularly during the emergence of ceramic cultures like Vinca in the Balkans, and notably in the later stages of the Goddess era, during the Chalcolithic period. This elevation of status may not only be attributed to agricultural developments but also to astrological shifts, such as the onset of the Age of Taurus around 6,000 years ago [4].

The bear holds significant importance in the Goddess culture, even dating back to the time of the cavemen. Its hibernation cycle, sleeping in winter and awakening in spring, symbolizes the process of regeneration associated with the Goddess. The act of entering a cave signifies death and a return to the womb, while awakening in spring symbolizes resurrection and renewal. The bear held a special place among the animals of the land, symbolizing the raw power of nature. This reverence for the bear extended to the night sky, where ancient cultures identified prominent star groups as “Ursa Major” (the Big Bear) and “Ursa Minor” (the Small Bear). In the constellation of Ursa Major, a square arrangement of stars, often referred to as the trapezium, was regarded as the four pillars upholding the earth, and it also directed attention to the North Star [5].

It might seem excessive to attribute Goddess symbolism to nearly every animal, but it’s important to grasp the broader concept: the Goddess embodies nature itself, and nature encompasses all living beings. As previously discussed, there’s an intricate web of connections between everything in existence. At its core, the cycle of life manifests in various forms across different realms, including the moon, nature, and the lives of animals and plants.

The arguments presented in this book, as well as those of researchers like Marija Gimbutas regarding the interpretation of Goddess figurines, might be dismissed by some as mere artifacts or primitive artworks. However, this overlooks the inherent religious inclination of humanity. Across all “primitive” cultures worldwide, from Australian Aborigines to Amazonian tribes, profound systems of religious beliefs emerged, rooted in shamanism, reverence for mother earth, and the cycles of life, death, and rebirth. This suggests that these concepts are archetypes within us, and that no human society can exist without religion, particularly so-called “primitive” societies. In this context, art also serves a religious purpose.

Religion in ancient times wasn’t merely an abstract concept or a set of rules stemming from faith. Instead, it was a holistic observation of nature, a way of perceiving the world, and a sense of belonging to something greater. During the Goddess culture, religion was intricately linked to life cycles, animals, plants, nature, and the cosmos, encompassing all aspects of human existence and the afterlife. The Goddess symbolized both the giver and taker of life, bestowing fertility, birth, growth, and culture, as well as magic, beauty, and aesthetics.

Alliance with the Plants

With the advent of agriculture and the emergence of Goddess culture, a comprehensive religion centered around the Great Mother developed, closely tied to the “vegetation riddle.” Alongside this, the concept of the “cosmic tree” emerged, serving as a bridge between different realms. Mircea Eliade describes it as follows: “The cosmic cycles are expressed using terminology borrowed from plant life. The ‘cosmic tree’ symbolizes the mystery of cosmic sacredness. The universe is perceived as an organism that must cyclically renew itself.” The cyclical rejuvenation of the world aligns with the cyclic rebirth of humanity. The cosmic tree links three realms: the underworld, Earth, and Heaven.

Trees have always been regarded as sacredת not inherently, but as symbols of divine revelations, sometimes cosmic in nature. For instance, the oak tree, the most common in Israel, is named after “God” (Alon in Hebrew). It’s essential to recognize that ancient Israel was largely forested, with trees covering the valleys and coastal plains. People built their homes among these trees, utilizing them for various purposes. Living in a forest, shaded by trees, offers a distinct experience compared to living in open fields. In doing so, humans became integrated into the rhythms of the seasons and the cycles of nature.

Trees were deeply associated with fertility and birth in Goddess cultures. In some traditions, when a person was born, their placenta would be buried in the ground, and a tree would be planted on top of it. This practice ensured that the individual remained connected to a particular tree throughout their life, visiting it from time to time. Similarly, when someone passed away, it was customary to plant a tree in their memory, either on or near their grave. This tradition persists to this day. Planting trees in memory of the deceased was believed to facilitate their transition to the next world, a practice rooted in the activation of sympathetic magic.

The tree, with its roots firmly planted in the earth and its branches reaching towards the sky, serves as a symbol of connection between the underworld, the earth, and the heavens above. This imagery mirrors the posture of humans, who, with their arms raised, resemble an inverted tree. Plato famously likened humans to upside-down trees, with their roots in the sky and their branches in the earth. The head of a human was often viewed as a seed, leading to practices where it would be separated from the body and buried in the ground.

Trees were believed to be vessels of energy, capable of channeling divine forces much like how they attract lightning. They were also thought to serve as containers for human souls. Thus, sacred groves were designated where trees were believed to house the energy, or souls, of humans, particularly shamans or leaders. This concept is explored in James Frazer’s seminal work, “The Golden Bough.” Stars, too, were perceived to be suspended among the branches of trees, symbolizing the universe and the Milky Way, akin to a cosmic tree depicted in the film “Avatar.”

Due to their size and height, trees were regarded as the axis mundi, symbolizing the structure of the universe. The roots and branches mirrored each other, with the trunk serving as a connection between the past and future. Thus, the entire tree was viewed as a model of time and the cosmos.

If trees served as vessels for divinity, who were these deities? According to ancient Egyptians, trees were inhabited by radiant sky deities, for whom the tree served as a portal to manifest in our world. Trees were viewed as conduits and bridges to the universe, particularly activated during the solar peaks of the year, such as solstices. This association with the sun likely stemmed from the intuitive understanding that sunlight was essential for tree growth.

Furthermore, trees symbolized fertility, with their trunks often bearing slits, folds, and crevices resembling female genitalia. Priestesses of the Goddess sought out such trees, and upon finding them, conducted ceremonies of Sacred marriages and ritualistic intercourse to bestow blessings upon the earth. This tradition persisted into biblical times and was referred to as “Asherah” or “Asherim.”

ndeed, trees embody an archetype within our subconscious, serving as nature’s cathedrals, the most striking features of the biosphere besides the earth itself. Viewed as extensions of Mother Earth, trees were perceived to grow from her, intimately connected to her, absorbing cosmic radiation, enriching her, and ultimately returning to her. The forest, a mystical realm teeming with life, offered shelter, solace, building resources, sustenance, and, in some instances, protection. It was a place where one could commune with and converse with living beings.

Indeed, plants held profound significance as sources of sustenance, with some arguing that even during the era of hunter-gatherers, they were a more crucial food source than hunting. Women, as gatherers, possessed an innate understanding of plant life, forging an alliance between humanity and the botanical realm. Through this pact, Mother Earth permitted humans to utilize certain plant offspring for their sustenance. Eliade discusses the “myth of origin” surrounding edible plants, a narrative still present in contemporary primitive societies. The advent of agriculture introduced greater complexity in the cycle of life and death, encompassing not only birth and death but also ripening, fruition, death, and rebirth. Mother Earth assumed the role of agricultural nurturer, leading to a transition from overarching simplicity to dynamic complexity. Various goddesses emerged, each associated with different plants, such as the Corn Mother in South America and the Grain Mother in the Mediterranean region.

The ancient Goddess culture revered the hidden powers inherent in seeds, buds, and flowers, believing they could be activated through ritual practices. This belief gave rise to “Winter Carnivals,” during which evil spirits were banished and fertility was invoked upon the fields and seeds. Similarly, ceremonies and celebrations took place in spring, coinciding with the blooming of flowers. Women adorned with flower crowns would traverse fields and houses, singing songs believed to enhance the ripening of fruits and the fertility of future seeds. These festivities formed a cyclical series of holidays, symbolizing reincarnation and encompassing initiation rites into the world beyond. Many of these ancient rituals endured within the traditions of agricultural folk festivals in Europe, particularly in the Balkans, persisting to the present day.

Plants also served as a vital source of medicine, with women often specializing in their use for healing purposes. This practice became integral to their lives, as they expressed gratitude to the spirits of the plants that aided in overcoming pain, illness, and suffering—an aspect later associated with witches. Moreover, certain plants possessed properties capable of altering one’s state of consciousness, including intoxicating and hallucinogenic effects that facilitated a connection to other dimensions and enhanced spiritual insight. Examples include Ayahuasca from South America, and its Israeli counterpart, the golden Hyoscyamus. This category also encompassed grapes used in winemaking, as well as barley and other plants utilized in beer production [6]. It is evident that ancient civilizations incorporated hallucinogenic plants into their religious ceremonies, including initiation rites, perceiving them as catalysts for spiritual elevation and the enhancement of mental, emotional, and physical well-being.

The association of plants and trees with the realm beyond gave rise to legends likely recounted around firesides. Shamans and priestesses spoke of a miraculous plant possessing unique properties and appearance: anyone who consumed it would supposedly gain eternal life. This plant was akin to the Tree of Life or Tree of Knowledge referenced in biblical stories. At times, a miraculous drink prepared from this plant, through which shamans and priestesses claimed connection, was shared among participants—a sort of “Soma” or “Elixir,” deemed the drink of the Gods.

The connection between the Goddess and vegetation is evident in the iconography of Goddess figurines, where plant motifs intertwine with the Human body. This association persists in later depictions, such as paintings portraying the Goddess unclothed beside a tree, akin to representations of Canaanite Goddesses as trees themselves. Trees and plants held a place in the prophetic and Sacred tradition, with practices including listening to the rustling of leaves [7] and using their resin for incense in temples and Sacred ceremonies. Certain plants, like salvia, have been interred in graves since the Natufian culture, dating back 15,000 years.

The transition to agriculture marked a profound shift in the significance of vegetation cycles for humanity, as livelihoods became intricately tied to them. This newfound dependence extended beyond the physical realm, shaping religious and spiritual perspectives. Plants are defined by their cyclical nature: trees shed leaves in autumn, bloom in spring, and bear fruit in summer. Similarly, grasses and flowers die annually with the onset of summer, only to be resurrected by the rains. The plants’ resurrection symbolized the potential for human rebirth.

Eliade emphasizes the profound impact of agricultural work on human understanding of cosmic time. This experience, intertwined with the agricultural cycle, led to the concept of cyclical time and the cosmic cycle. Human existence, like the natural world, was perceived in terms of the plant kingdom, with the cosmic whole viewed as an endless repetition of the same cycle: birth, death, rebirth. The archaic ideas concerning the cyclic renewal of the world resurfaced, were reinterpreted, and became assimilated into various religious systems of the Middle East. The roots of eschatological cosmologies and messianic movements that would dominate the Eastern Mediterranean region for millennia can be traced back to the concepts of the Neolithic period,Goddess culture.

[1] Bar-Yosef, Ofer, Garfinkel, Yosef. (2008) The Prehistory of the Land of Israel: Human Culture Before the Invention of the Ariel Script. Jerusalem. p. 243

[2]     Yazraeli-Noy, Tamar (1999) the Human Figure in Prehistoric Art in the Land of Israel, the Israel Museum. p. 11

[3] Rappenglück MA. Paleolithic timekeepers looking at the Golden Gate of the ecliptic; The lunar cycle and the Pleiades in the cave of La-Tête-Du-Lion (Ardèche, France) – 21,000 BP. Earth, Moon and Planets. 85-86:391-40

[4] Be that as it may, with the beginning of history 5,500 years ago the cow becomes the main representative animal of the Goddess in ancient Egypt.

[5] At least that’s according to Michael Rappengluck, who claims an astronomical thought of the ancients that was expressed in their art and the architecture of the houses.

[6] The vine was seen as associated with wisdom, and it was said to be the fruit of the tree of knowledge.

[7] At the site of Dodoni in ancient Greece, priestesses prophesied by the rustling of oak trees.