This is a rudimentary translation of articles from my book “Touching the Sacred” While it is far from ideal, it serves a purpose given the significance of the topic and the distinctiveness of the information contained. I have chosen to publish it in its current state, with the hope that a more refined translation will be available in the future.
Second Temple in Greek Roman Context
It’s crucial to recognize that the Second Temple era coincided largely with the ascent of Greco-Roman culture, a departure from the ancient magical cultures of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia. At the core of Greco-Roman civilization lay the concept of the polis, a framework of civic urban society governed by politics rather than religion. This culture emphasized human intellect and reason over blind faith, fostering advancements in art, architecture, critical thinking, science, and philosophy. In this worldview, humanity took center stage, displacing the gods, and architectural masterpieces served as expression of Human ability, manifestations of the rational perception of cosmic order and the evolving social structure. Temples stood as awe-inspiring testaments to human ingenuity in art, architecture, sculpture, and scientific understanding.
Up until the Greco-Roman epoch, human settlements were predominantly villages, and trade was largely localized. However, with the conquests of Alexander the Great, a new era dawned as new cities were established, and international trade flourished. This trend reached its zenith during the dominance of the Roman Empire, which absorbed much of the “civilized” world and adopted the cultural norms of the Greek city-states. Within this dynamic cultural landscape, architecture emerged as the preeminent art form, serving as a reflection of the evolving social and political structures. This transformation found expression in the construction of magnificent temples, exemplified by iconic structures such as the Parthenon in Athens and the Pantheon in Rome.
Greek Temples
Greek temples represented a departure from the magical attributes associated with temples in other ancient cultures like Egypt. Instead, they epitomized harmony and order, emphasizing principles of proportion, arrangement, structure, and spatial relationships. These architectural marvels were meticulously designed to integrate seamlessly with their surroundings and to resonate with the visitor on both a visual and spiritual level. At their core, Greek temples embodied the cosmic order as perceived through the lens of reason and human intellect. The Greeks, renowned for their affinity towards mathematics, geometry, and philosophy, infused their artistic sensibilities into temple construction, viewing these structures as symbolic representations of a new era in politics and society.
The Temples served as vehicles for expanding the human mind. While they adhered to strict architectural principles of proportion and harmony, they also transcended these elements, embodying an ineffable essence that stirred delicate and refined emotions beyond verbal expression. To enhance this experience, Temples were adorned with statues, paintings, and ornate decorations. When masters like Phidias, renowned as Greece’s foremost sculptor, crafted works such as the statue of Zeus in Olympia, they elevated religious expression to new heights, evoking profound emotional responses, even bringing viewers to tears.
In Greek art, particularly in the construction of Temples, a human element and personal expression were paramount. This emphasis on the individual manifested in two significant ways. Firstly, through the Temple visitor’s interaction with elements such as perspectives, visual effects, and mythological narratives depicted in the artwork. Secondly, the artistic brilliance inherent in these creations often inspired profound aesthetic and occasionally Religious experiences. Rather than serving solely as grand monuments to divine power, Temples stood as testament to humanity’s remarkable capacity for creating awe-inspiring works of art.
Each Temple was devoted to a specific deity, typically represented by a statue. In Greek Temples, the statues of gods were notably larger compared to those in Mesopotamian or Egyptian Temples. Temples were dedicated to both gods and goddesses, featuring similar overall designs but differing in their architectural details, proportions, and symbolic elements. Consequently, two distinct types of Temples emerged: the Doric Temple, reflecting the Doric order and associated with the male principle, and the Ionian Temple, characterized by the Ionic order and symbolizing the female principle.
Through the development of architectural orders associated with Cosmic principles of masculinity and femininity, Greco-Roman Temple architecture established a uniformity that facilitated the emergence of a realm of archetypes and abstract thought transcending material reality. This opened the door to engaging with the Platonic realm of ideas and perceiving art and architecture in new ways. Unlike Egyptian Temples, which lacked a concept of “beauty,” Greco-Roman Temples embraced notions of beauty derived from Greek culture. Herod’s Temple, for instance, was lauded for its beauty, with the notion of beauty in Judaism influenced by Greek ideals of order, harmony, and proportion.
Before the Greek era, Temples were regarded as sites of divine presence on earth, places of power where access to unseen realms was facilitated. However, Greek philosophers introduced a paradigm shift by asserting that the abstract concept of beauty originates from innate patterns of perception within humanity. They dispelled notions of magic and the necessity of intermediaries for accessing the Sacred, positing that the invisible realms arise from human perception and are immanent rather than transcendental. According to this worldview, the existing world encompasses all that “is,” and it can be understood and experienced through the inherent principles within it. As a result, Temples ceased to be mere reflections or imitations of distant and transcendent worlds but became integral parts of the human realm.
The Temples evolved into a blend of structural simplicity and harmonious proportions, with their dimensions and order dictated by the average radius of the columns used, whether Ionic, Doric, or Corinthian. The column symbolized humanity, echoing the ancient adage that “man is the measure of all things.” This representation of man by the column not only determined the Temple’s height but also served as a potent symbol of human authority and agency in the world. While columns held significance in Egyptian Temples as well, they symbolized Cosmic principles predating Creation rather than human presence.
Greek Temples were intricately designed to engage with visitors on multiple levels. Employing principles of perspective, proportions, and modular repetition, they presented varying appearances from different viewpoints, fostering interaction between the Temple and its observers. Unlike Egyptian Temples, which aimed to influence visitors through spiritual energies, Greek Temples sought to inspire through aesthetic appreciation and intellectual stimulation. They aimed to awaken a newfound awareness of the surrounding landscape, the celestial realm, and the self. Encouraging a connection with the muse, Greek Temples evoked artistic sentiments, a thirst for beauty, and a pursuit of knowledge, intended to enrich individuals’ lives and experiences.
Greek Temple design, a principle somewhat lost during the Roman era, emphasized a profound connection between the Temple and its natural surroundings. Typically situated atop elevated terrain, often within close proximity to significant natural landmarks, Greek Temples were strategically positioned for visibility from afar. Furthermore, their orientation often corresponded to distinctive landscape features, celestial bodies, and cardinal directions. Frequently, these Temples found their placement on elevated regions north of urban centers, colloquially referred to as Acropolises.
Another dimension of Greek Temples was their socio-political significance. Unlike traditional religious societies, the Greeks, particularly in the 5th century BC, began to embrace philosophical ideals that liberated them from dependence on intermediary priests and fear of the gods. Instead, they viewed the gods as symbolic representations of human experiences and the underlying principles of the universe. Consequently, Greek religion became intertwined with the affairs of the city-state (polis) and the establishment of social order, rather than solely focusing on celestial realms. Some Temples were dedicated to the heroic figures who founded cities, while others honored gods associated with specific urban centers. Temples served as focal points for processions, public festivities, and were often erected to commemorate significant victories or momentous occasions.
The Greek gods bore human-like qualities, in contrast to the Egyptian deities, which were depicted as mythical beings intertwined with animals and celestial bodies. Consequently, early Greek Temples, such as those found in the Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations, resembled the dwellings of humans and were known as “megaron.” These structures comprised expansive square rooms, heated interiors, balconies, and grand columned entrances, akin to the halls used by kings and tribal leaders. The square design of the megaron symbolized the earth, with a central sacred fire representing the connection to forces beyond the terrestrial realm. Initially, megaron structures were adorned with decorative elements, such as tulips, and served as royal chambers, meeting places for men, and venues for festivities, libations, and religious rites.
Structure of the Greek Temple
Greek Temples typically featured a rectangular hall known as the Naos, which housed the deity’s statue. Flanking the Naos, and occasionally situated behind it, were porticos with columns called “Peristyle.” Positioned in front of the Naos was an entrance hall termed the pronaos. In some instances, an inner chamber known as the opisthodomos was accessible only to the priest and situated behind the Naos. Temples were often described based on the number of columns in their front and rear facades, with columns encircling the structure. The front typically featured an even number of columns, while the sides boasted a double row. Moreover, the length of the Temple generally equaled twice its width.
The Greek Temple, dedicated to a deity or multiple gods, occupied a Sacred precinct, accessed through an imposing gateway known as the Propylaea. Upon purification with water, worshippers entered the Sacred enclosure and advanced along a Sacred path, passing by the treasure house—a structure reserved for storing offering gifts. Adjacent to it stood a semicircular portico where offerings were placed, before proceeding to the Temple proper. Positioned in front of the Temple was an Altar where Sacrifices and offerings were presented. Following the ritual, worshippers would enter the Temple to view the deity’s statue through the open doorway of the Sacred hall, known as the naos.
The Greek Temple was adorned with painted reliefs adorning the gables, facades, and interior friezes. These reliefs held significance and order; the gables depicted the gods, while the Metope illustrated myths and the interaction between gods and humans. Vibrant colors adorned the entire Temple, reminiscent of Egyptian Temples, with red backgrounds and blue accents creating contrast. These hues accentuated the stone or white marble statues, with certain motifs like shields and statues embellished with gilded bronze. The frieze, situated at the top, featured stone slabs adorned with high reliefs interspersed with triglyphs sporting two vertical grooves. Triangular gables were adorned with sculptures and high reliefs, flanked by gargoyles on either side.
The Temples were classified into two main types or orders: Doric and Ionic. The Doric style, associated with masculinity, emerged in the 7th century BC among the mountainous tribes of Greece. Doric Temples featured Doric columns with 20 flutes, resting directly on the floor with minimal bases, and unadorned capitals. In contrast, the Ionic style, associated with femininity, originated among the Ionic tribes who settled in Asia Minor in the 5th century BC. The Ionic columns were slender and tall, sometimes featuring 24 flutes or a smooth surface, positioned on decorative bases, with capitals resembling scrolls or snails. The Ionic Temples boasted a continuous frieze along their upper portion and a cornice adorned with oval and pointed shapes, topped by acroteria resembling palm leaves at the corners of the triangular gable. A prime example of the Ionic style is the Parthenon in Athens.
The Corinthian style emerged as a third significant architectural style over time, distinguished by its column capitals resembling acanthus leaves sprouting from a basket-like structure. According to legend, the inspiration for this unique design came from an encounter in a cemetery where the King of Corinth and the city’s chief architect encountered a mourning woman searching for her daughter’s play basket. Upon finding the basket, adorned with acanthus leaves among the woven straw, the architect was inspired to create a new style of column capital. Thus, the Corinthian capital, symbolizing the child, was conceived, representing the union of male and female principles. The Corinthian order gained popularity in the Roman world and was utilized in various public buildings and Temples, albeit losing its original symbolic significance over time.
The Parthenon
Shortly after the reconstruction of the Second Temple by the returning Jews to Zion, during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah’s construction of the walls of Jerusalem, one of the world’s most renowned and stunning Temples was erected on the Acropolis in Athens. Greece boasts numerous Temples dedicated to various gods, with the Temple in Delphi standing out among them. However, the most celebrated and magnificent of all is the Parthenon in Athens. To gain insight into the architectural landscape of the period, let us delve into this remarkable structure.
The Parthenon was erected by the Athenians following their triumph over the Persians, a pivotal victory that safeguarded Greek culture and religion. This Temple was dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos, known as Athena the Virgin, hence its name. Apart from serving as the epitome of classical Greek architecture, the Parthenon also functioned as the treasury of the Delian League, later transitioning to that of the Athenian Empire. Athena, revered as the patron deity of Athens, emerged fully armed from the forehead of Zeus and maintained her status as a virgin goddess. She embodied wisdom and was also regarded as a goddess of war.
Approaching the Parthenon, one witnesses its appearance shift dynamically. Ascending the mountain, new perspectives of the surrounding landscape unfold, while different facets of the Temple come into view, vanish, or are accentuated with each step up the stairs. The Temple seems to engage in a silent dialogue with the pilgrim, revealing and concealing aspects of itself along the way. At certain points, it even vanishes entirely from sight, only to reappear beyond the Acropolis Gate. Even atop the Acropolis Hill, its appearance varies from every angle. The columns of the structure, thickening towards their upper sections, create an illusion of perfect perspective. This curvature contributes to its symmetrical allure, enhancing its beauty from the vantage point of the human observer. The laws of perspective govern the relationship between floor and ceiling, front and back, imbuing the viewer with a sense of balance and symmetry.
The Parthenon’s architectural design incorporates a subtle relationship with its surrounding environment. While the building itself is oriented towards the peaks of the surrounding mountains, this alignment becomes evident only upon reaching the Acropolis. Positioned on a prominent rocky hill to the north of the city, within a valley encircled by towering mountains, the Parthenon occupies a classic Acropolis location—a place steeped in divine significance. This sacred setting follows the pagan tradition of sanctifying natural landmarks. Besides its commanding presence, the Parthenon is also situated near a natural spring at the base of the hill. In essence, the topography of the Parthenon mirrors that of the Temple in Jerusalem.
In the structure itself, the Parthenon embodies sacred proportions, including the renowned golden ratio of 1.618, attributed to Phidias himself, who named this divine proportion. This ratio, observed in the growth of spirals in nature, adds to the Temple’s mystique. Additionally, the Parthenon adheres to the sacred ratio of two-thirds and one-third symbolizes harmony and balance. Despite being dedicated to a goddess, the Parthenon epitomizes both cosmic and human order. The meticulous application of proportions, perspective, placement, and orientation infuses vitality into the edifice, while its exquisite artwork adds to its allure. Supervising both construction and adornment was Phidias, the sculptor renowned for evoking profound emotions with his works. He crafted the awe-inspiring statue of Athena Parthenos, housed within the Temple, and oversaw the creation of the outer and inner friezes, as well as the gables’ sculptures and reliefs.
The reliefs and sculptures of the Parthenon were meticulously painted and adorned with metals, and perhaps even precious gems, adding richness to their storytelling. These intricate artworks narrated tales familiar to those versed in Greek religion and mythology. The metopes depicted mythological narratives, while the inner friezes showcased interactions between mortals and deities, notably the grand procession of the Panathenaia, honoring the goddess Athena. In the gables, scenes related to Athena and her association with Athens were portrayed. Together, these elements transformed the Parthenon into a stone chronicle—a visual epic. The arrangement of the figures created an ambiance of solemnity and reverence, inviting contemplation and reflection.
The citizens of Athens found in the reliefs of the Parthenon a vivid representation of their Religious processions, festivals, and devotional rites dedicated to the goddess Athena. They recognized mythological narratives recounting the founding of their city and the legendary contest between Athena and Poseidon. These depictions brought to life the movements, expressions, and emotions of the divine figures, fostering a sense of connection and identification between the people and their Temple. Unlike the perceived distance inherent in the temples of other ancient cultures, the Parthenon allowed the Greek gods to descend to earth and engage intimately with humanity.
Roman Temples
Roman culture, particularly in architectural terms, was predominantly eclectic, making it challenging to pinpoint a distinct classical Roman Temple style. Romans valued order and education, traits that rendered them receptive to adopting architectural styles from other cultures as long as they served their purposes. Unlike Greek Temples, which emphasized art and beauty, Roman Temples were primarily expressions of imperial politics and the socio-political landscape of the empire, reflecting the authority of the emperor and the political dynamics of the time.
From their earliest history, Romans encountered Etruscan and Greek Temples across Italy, shaping their architectural sensibilities. As they expanded throughout the Mediterranean, encountering civilizations like Egypt and Armenia, they absorbed further architectural influences, yet the primary and enduring influence remained classical Greece. During the transition of the Roman state into an empire, particularly under the reign of the first great emperor Augustus, a significant initiative to construct Temples unfolded across Italy, overseen by the imperial architect Vitruvius. Remarkably, this coincided with Herod’s reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.
During this era, Greek architectural influence reached its zenith. Vitruvius penned a comprehensive treatise detailing the principles and standards of architecture of his time, which included an entire chapter dedicated to Temple construction. It’s noteworthy that architecture held a paramount status among the arts in Rome. According to Vitruvius, aspiring architects were required to study philosophy and the natural sciences alongside their craft. Here’s what Vitruvius elucidates about Temple architecture:
“For the human body is so designed by nature that the face, from the chin to the top of the forehead and the lowest roots of the hair, is a tenth part of the whole height; the open hand from the wrist to the tip of the middle finger is just the same; the head from the chin to the crown is an eighth, and with the neck and shoulder from the top of the breast to the lowest roots of the hair is a sixth; from the middle of the breast to the summit of the crown is a fourth. If we take the height of the face itself, the distance from the bottom of the chin to the under side of the nostrils is one third of it; the nose from the under side of the nostrils to a line between the eyebrows is the same; from there to the lowest roots of the hair is also a third, comprising the forehead. The length of the foot is one sixth of the height of the body; of the forearm, one fourth; and the breadth of the breast is also one fourth. The other members, too, have their own symmetrical proportions, and it was by employing them that the famous painters and sculptors of antiquity attained to great and endless renown.
Similarly, in the members of a temple there ought to be the greatest harmony in the symmetrical relations of the different parts to the general magnitude of the whole. Then again, in the human body the central point is naturally the navel. For if a man be placed flat on his back, with his hands and feet extended, and a pair of compasses centred at his navel, the fingers and toes of his two hands and feet will touch the circumference of a circle described therefrom. And just as the human body yields a circular outline, so too a square figure may be found from it. For if we measure the distance from the soles of the feet to the top of the head, and then apply that measure to the outstretched arms, the breadth will be found to be the same as the height, as in the case of plane surfaces which are perfectly square.
Therefore, since nature has designed the human body so that its members are duly proportioned to the frame as a whole, it appears that the ancients had good reason for their rule, that in perfect buildings the different members must be in exact symmetrical relations to the whole general scheme. Hence, while transmitting to us the proper arrangements for buildings of all kinds, they were particularly careful to do so in the case of temples of the gods, buildings in which merits and faults usually last forever.” (Vitruvius, on architecture 3:1)
Roman culture epitomized urbanism, boasting cities with populations exceeding a million residents, where Temples seamlessly integrated into the urban landscape. Following the classical Greek city planning known as the “Hippodamian Plan,” Roman cities were meticulously structured. This plan entailed shaping cities into squares oriented towards the cardinal points, with intersecting streets running north-south and east-west. The principal thoroughfare in the north-south direction, known as the “Cardo,” intersected with the central east-west street, known as the “Decumanus.” Even Roman Jerusalem adhered to this plan.
In each city, one or two Sacred complexes occupied the most central location, typically at the intersection of the main thoroughfares and often situated at an elevated position. These complexes housed Temples dedicated to various gods and goddesses. Temples dedicated to gods typically adhered to the Doric order and were oriented along a north-south axis, while Temples dedicated to goddesses typically followed the Ionic order and were oriented along an east-west axis. Roman Temples honoring female deities often adopted circular shapes, exemplified by the iconic Temple of the Vestal Virgins in Rome. Conversely, Temples dedicated to male deities were characterized by linear designs, typically in square or rectangular forms. As the empire expanded, the east-west axis, symbolizing the rising sun, gained significance, leading to the construction of many Temples oriented towards it. At times, circular shapes, symbolizing perfection, were employed, particularly in Temples associated with the sun, such as the illustrious Pantheon in Rome.
From a planning perspective, Romans placed significant emphasis on the front facade of Temples, which were required to exhibit symmetry, and the public space preceding the Temple. Within the central chamber of the Temple resided the deity’s statue, often accompanied by a storage area behind it. One notable distinction between Roman and Greek Temples lay in the absence of deliberate orientation of the Temple towards its natural surroundings. Romans occasionally imposed a square city layout onto the vicinity, dictating both the placement and configuration of Temples. This approach reflected a masculine ideology characterized by the imposition of authority and dominance over the environment.
It’s noteworthy that while Herod undertook the construction of the Temple in Jerusalem, he also erected Temples dedicated to Emperor Augustus in various locations across the land, including Caesarea, Sebastia, and Hurbat Amri in the Galilee. A comparison between these Temples and the one in Jerusalem reveals intriguing similarities. In Caesarea, for instance, the Temple featured a notable Sacred plaza, encompassing a spacious courtyard encircled by a columned portico—an echo of the expansive extension and portico of columns Herod incorporated around the Jerusalem Temple. The Temple in Caesarea boasted large columns in the Greek architectural style, reminiscent of the royal basilica (Stoa) constructed by Herod on the Temple Mount plaza, south of the Temple.
