The Holy Grail
The following article is translated extracts taken from my book (published in Hebrew) – England in search of the Holy Grail.
The legends of the Holy Grail first appeared in France and England in the 12th century [1], particularly among circles associated with the Templar order [2], promoters of church reforms, and within the literary and intellectual courts of Queens Mary of Champagne and Eleanor of Aquitaine. These courts were places where the tradition of courtly love and Christian mysticism was developed. The stories soon became popular throughout Western Europe, shaping the ideals and aspirations of generations of knights. The young nobility of Europe knew the stories of the Holy Grail better than the Bible and the New Testament, aspiring to fulfill the ideals they represented and seeking the Grail as a gateway to a heavenly realms.
Stories have always been a way to bypass the thinking and analyzing mind, which often interferes with the absorption of the supersensible reality—the world of ideas and energies, the divine existence behind the world of phenomena from which all things arise. This was the case among the mystery schools of the classical world, such as the Orphic school, where mythology was understood allegorically and taught as symbolizing the spiritual journey. This approach was also prevalent among Sufi Muslim mystics in nearby Spain and among circles of Christian mysticism and heretical sects that flourished in France at that time, such as the Cathars.
The Holy Grail itself first appears in literature around 1180 in an unfinished poem by Chrétien de Troyes, who was the court writer of Mary of Champagne, daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine. Chrétien’s version of the Grail story lacks explicit connections to Jesus or Joseph of Arimathea, and shows early Celtic influences. He introduced a spiritual and moral element into the narrative of courtly love through his stories of knights such as Lancelot and Percival. His work culminated in “Perceval, the Story of the Grail” (Perceval, le Conte du Graal), where the Grail appears for the first time as a mysterious object, referred to as the “Graal” in French, which is not necessarily a chalice but more of a bowl.
The development of the Grail legend continued with Robert de Boron, who wrote “Joseph of Arimathea” or “The Story of the Grail” about a decade after Chrétien’s death. In Boron’s version, the chalice takes on the meaning of the vessel that collected the blood and water from Jesus’ side at the Crucifixion, imbuing it with sacred significance. According to Boron, Joseph of Arimathea brought the Grail to Avalon (often associated with Glastonbury in England), where it remained until the time of King Arthur. Boron may have been influenced by the monks at Glastonbury who claimed to have discovered King Arthur’s tomb, although he presented his story as coming from ancient sources.
The next important Grail story is the anonymous “Perlesvaus” or “The High History of the Holy Grail.” In this tale, Percival encounters the Knights of the Grail, depicted as a kind of monastic brotherhood dressed in white robes with red crosses on their chests. This story delves into themes of alchemy and esotericism, presenting a content and tone fundamentally different from its predecessors, though the basic elements of the plot remain similar.
Approximately forty years after Chrétien’s work, Wolfram von Eschenbach’s renowned Grail story, “Parzival,” emerged. Wolfram begins with an introduction claiming that Chrétien’s account is incorrect. He asserts that the true story was relayed to him by a man named Kyot, who heard it in Toledo from a heretic named Flegetanis. Wolfram provides extensive details about the nature of the Knights of the Grail, describing how they are named after the Grail, and most notably, he names them the “Templisen” or “Templars.” Although German by name, Wolfram is believed to have lived as a monk in England.
The Grail stories initially developed separately from the tales of King Arthur, but over time, they became intertwined. Percival evolves into a Knight of the Round Table, with Arthur commanding the quest for the Grail, and knights such as Galahad, Gawain, and Lancelot finding the Grail. This merging of narratives solidified the legend of the Holy Grail as an integral part of the Arthurian tradition, blending themes of chivalry, mysticism, and the quest for spiritual enlightenment.
The search for the Holy Grail represents humanity’s quest for meaning, spirituality, and enlightenment, a pursuit embedded in human nature and society throughout all generations. Man is born with a sense of lack and spends his life seeking what was lost. The great religious scholar Mircea Eliade called this “the myth of the eternal return”—the human desire to return to the primordial time, to renew the act of creation, and to escape the horrors of history to a timeless place of holiness. In mystical circles, this is referred to as “returning home.” The human soul, which was once united with God before birth, finds itself exiled in the material world and longs to reunite with its source, to achieve unity with God and creation. Even if a person forgets who they are and where they came from, a subconscious part of them remembers and journeys to other realms. The first step on this journey is to let a person taste those worlds and awaken that forgotten memory, which is the essence of the Holy Grail.
The Holy Grail appeared before the Knights of the Round Table during Pentecost (the descent of the Christian Holy Spirit upon the apostles) for a brief, yet eternal moment, offering them a glimpse of the spiritual worlds their souls once belonged to. For one fleeting instant, they touched holiness, and from that moment on, there was no turning back. They spent the rest of their lives searching for that same feeling, that illumination which had transformed their existence, giving them a new perspective on life, being, and existence. This taste of the divine provided them with meaning, a path, a direction, and a goal to strive for. The physical world became less significant, and the battle against external evil transformed into a battle against internal weaknesses that hindered their quest for holiness. Physical chivalry evolved into spiritual chivalry.
At the beginning of the 14th century, the Grail stories suddenly disappear and then reappear in later literature, with the best-known version being that of Thomas Malory from the 15th century. These is the story in general terms:
At the Last Supper, Jesus filled his Chalice with wine and passed it among the disciples. Later, Joseph of Arimathea collected the blood and water that flowed from Jesus’ wounds in the same Chalice, which then received the essence and attributes of Jesus, and became the Holy Chalice.
After the Jewish great rebellion, Joseph fled from Jerusalem and took the Chalice with him. According to one version, he arrived at Glastonbury in England, while other versions suggest he went to the Pyrenees or other places in the world, where he founded the Grail Castle to keep the sacred object. His family and descendants became the keepers of the Grail.
The Chalice was kept in the “dangerous castle” for many generations by the holy dynasty, together with the spear that pierced Jesus’ side, called the Spear of Destiny, the presence of the Sacred object and Dynasty brought blessings and abundance to the land. The Keeping of the Grail was made possible by living a life of purity in thought, deed, and word. However, one day, one of Joseph’s descendants looked lustfully at the breasts of a young woman who came to the castle, and immediately the Spear of Destiny fell on him, wounding him in his loins. The wound could not be healed, and the king became the “Fisher King”, one that that tries to fish and fails because he is wounded in the thigh. The Chalice disappeared from sight, and could only be seen veiled at special times. Even worse, the surrounding land became desolate as a result. To redeem the land, a new knight had to arrive at the castle, ask the right question, replace the “Fisher King,” and become the new keeper of the chalice.
And so it happened that the Chalice miraculously appeared before the fellowship of King Arthur’s Round Table, and its appearance inspired the knights to go out and search for it. Only one of them, Galahad, the perfect knight, managed to reach the “dangerous castle” and become the keeper of the Chalice instead of the Fisher King, thereby restoring the blessing to the land.
The Round Table Fellowship gathered every week to witness some miraculous happening, as was their custom. Suddenly, they heard thunder and saw a bright light. The door burst open in a stormy wind, and a Chalice wrapped in a white cloth entered the room. Each knight looked at his fellow and saw him more beautiful than ever before. The room was filled with pleasant smells, everyone’s plate was filled with their favorite foods, and they felt a sense of familiarity and homecoming. The Chalice passed through the room for only a brief moment—which seemed full, rich, and eternal—and then it left as it had come. The entire time, nobody said a word. Then Gawain rose, followed by all the other knights, and they swore to seek the Chalice until they found it. Arthur’s heart sank, knowing this marked the end of the fellowship of the Round Table.
A few hours earlier, Merlin had entered the hall with Galahad—a young knight who seemed the epitome of perfection in purity, valor and all other Knightly attributes. The old man introduced him as the son of Lancelot, the grandson of King Peles—the keeper of the Chalice—and the son of the maiden Alleyn, a descendant of Joseph of Arimathea. He led him to the only empty chair around the Round Table, called the “dangerous chair” because it was originally the throne of Judas Iscariot. Miraculously, Galahad’s name appeared on it in illuminated letters.
With Galahad’s arrival, the Fellowship of the Round Table reached perfection, completing the social journey and allowing the spiritual journey to begin. Galahad set out on the quest together with the others, and thanks to his purity, he ultimately became the keeper of the Chalice.
The other version – Percival
At the beginning of the 13th century, Wolfram von Eschenbach wrote a mystical and slightly different version of the story of the Grail, focusing on the character of Percival. The hero of this story is a simple boy raised in the forest by his mother, who hides his noble origin to protect him from a life of war and killing. However, fate has other plans, and one day, while walking through the forest, he happens to encounter some members of the Round Table and decides to become a knight in King Arthur’s court. He leaves his mother and his previous life and goes to the king’s court, where he becomes a knight and sets out on an adventurous journey that leads him, eventually, to the “dangerous castle.”
The Grail Castle is guarded by an order of knights and ruled by a crippled king, wounded in the thigh, called the “Fisher King.” The area around the castle is a wasteland, and the king is dying. Percival is invited to eat at the castle. This is a strange meal, beginning with a procession featuring many wonderful things, and finally, a man carrying a spear with blood dripping from it and a woman carrying a Chalice pass through the threshold. The Chalice provides food for all the knights and somehow keeps the dying king alive. After the meal, Percival falls asleep, and when he wakes up, he finds the castle abandoned and realizes that something he did was wrong.
During the meal, Percival sees the spear of destiny and the Chalice. The vision is accompanied by miraculous phenomena, such as plates being filled with food, but due to his “chivalrous” manners, he says nothing and goes to sleep. If he had asked, “Who does the Chalice serve?” the king would have been healed of his wound, the land would have been redeemed, and he would have become the keeper of the Holy Grail, but he missed the opportunity, and it slipped away.
Thus, he has to start again. Only after many years of searching and adventuring does he find his way back to the Grail Castle, participates in the meal, and asks the right questions. Percival discovers the truth about the Chalice—that the Fisher King is his uncle and that he, Percival, has been called by the Chalice to be its new protector.
Theories about the Holy Grail
The Holy Grail is referred to simply as “the Holy Grail” in the tales, and its worth noting that the etymology of the word “Grail” is not clear, but it likely denotes a plate or bowl used during meals.
The Chalice symbolizes various things to different people. Its ambiguity enhances its allure and facilitates its function. Here are some Theories [3] of what the Chalice represents and its significance:
The Chalice of Jesus:
Most directly, this is the chalice used by Jesus during the Last Supper, into which Joseph of Arimathea collected his blood, thereby imbuing it with his essence.
The chalice possesses several qualities associated with Jesus, including the ability to heal and resurrect, facilitate communication with God and impart knowledge of God, remain concealed from evil and the unworthy, nourish those around it, grant immortality, and summon the worthy.
Lineage of Jesus:
The term Grail is also known as Sangrail or Sang Riel, which translates to “holy blood.” A recent theory suggests that Jesus had descendants, and his lineage, secretly influential behind the scenes, is the true Holy Grail. The Chalice symbolizes the female womb, where this sacred lineage was nurtured, hence its frequent association with women. This concept features in the novel “The Da Vinci Code,” which draws upon ideas from the book “Holy Blood, Holy Grail.”
The Celtic Cauldron:
Parallels exist between the Celtic myths and the legends of King Arthur, including similarities between the Celtic stories of sacred cauldrons and the tales of the Holy Grail. Some argue that this is an ancient tradition adapted to Christianity, finding its expression in regions historically inhabited by Celts—Wales, parts of Great Britain, and Brittany in Northern France.
The Philosopher’s Stone:
In alchemy, the quest for the Philosopher’s Stone was seen as a means to transform base metals into gold, symbolizing the transmutation of the ordinary man into an enlightened being. Alchemy served as a spiritual quest clothed in material experimentation, seeking transformation through miraculous objects and processes. Some interpretations link the term “Grail” to a stone, positing that the Grail is akin to the Philosopher’s Stone, facilitating personal transformation, enlightenment, and immortality.
The Psychological Grail:
Carl Jung and his wife Emma extensively explored the symbolism of the Holy Grail legends and their connection to alchemy, interpreting these stories in their symbolic and subconscious dimensions. The characters are archetypal, and the objects—Chalice, sword, stone, spear—are potent religious symbols at a subconscious level. Jung suggested that the Christianity of the time lacked certain fundamental elements, and the Grail stories served to fulfill this void, representing a stage in the evolution of Christianity.
The Chalice as a Developmental Energy:
New Age groups like Damanhur, Anthroposophy, and the Emin regard the Grail legends as tales of individuals who have harnessed high energies that foster evolutionary development leap. One theory posits that the “Chalice” symbolizes the lower part of the head, encompassing the area between the ears, the neck, and the nose. This “Chalice” represents a network of blood vessels at the neck’s base and the skull that nourishes the brain—summoning energy that enhances brain capacity, thus fostering development and activating dormant abilities crucial for the next phase of human evolution.
The Templars
The legends of the Holy Grail surfaced among individuals linked to the Templar Order. In the most intricate version of these legends (that of Percival), the Knights of the Round Table are depicted wearing Templar attire. Hence, it’s pertinent to discuss this enigmatic order.
The Templars, also known as the Knights of Solomon’s Temple, were established in 1119 after nine knights spent several years at the then-abandoned complex of the Dome of the Rock and Temple Mount—where, it is rumored, they discovered remarkable items like the Temple’s Urim and Thummim, possibly linked to the Holy Grail. These knights took monastic vows, merging the roles of warrior and monk for the first time, under the guidance and inspiration of Bernard of Clairvaux. Their primary mission was to protect pilgrims, the new order was rapidly growing to become one of Europe’s wealthiest and most influential orders. The order’s founder, Hugues de Payens, visited England and Scotland in 1128, recruiting members from noble Norman families and establishing Templar centers in London and throughout Scotland.
Hugues de Payens and many of the knights originated from the Champagne region of France, close to Troyes where the Grail stories first emerged. The Templar order maintained a partial veil of secrecy, with some alleging that they engaged in occult practices and concealed their esoteric doctrine in the Holy Grail stories.
The Templar order was predominantly French, yet the Norman aristocracy in England, who spoke French and were connected to their estates in France, played a significant role in it. King Henry II ruled over western France, an area many of the Order’s members and leaders came from. He supported the Templars and in 1154 contributed to constructing a round church in London styled after the Dome of the Rock, replaced 30 years later by the still-standing Temple Church. The Templars became a major economic force in England, safeguarding the kingdom’s treasures at their London center and owning extensive estates, monasteries, and lands across the country. Kings like Richard the Lionheart and John Lackland from the Plantagenet dynasty were closely aligned with them, as were Civil War-era rulers like Queen Matilda, John Balliol, and King Stephen, who supported and patronized them.
The Templars’ central hub in England was in the town they established called Baldock in Hertfordshire, situated along the Archangel Michael line. Nearby, the unique Royston Cave was discovered, adorned with medieval paintings and mysterious reliefs similar to those on the Stolac stones in Bosnia (associated with the Bogomils) and the Cathar cave paintings in France—both Gnostic heretical Christian movements from the Middle Ages. It’s speculated that this cave was a site for the Templars’ secret rites, displaying their ties to the apostate Gnostic Christianity of the era.
On Friday, October 13, 1307, King Philip the Fair of France, in collaboration with the Pope, banned the Templars and seized their assets. However, England’s King Edward II was skeptical of the charges and permitted their continued operation until January 1308, only disbanding the order and symbolically arresting a few dozen members under intense papal pressure—most of whom were later released. Thus, unlike in France, there was no extensive suppression of the Templars in England. Additionally, Scotland, having achieved independence during Edward II’s reign, was beyond the Pope’s influence and control.
Modern theories suggest the Templars may have persisted in some form in England and particularly in Scotland, with the founders of Masonic societies potentially emerging from these ranks.
The ideal of Chivalry
Chivalry began in Europe during the Middle Ages as a moral and social movement. It emerged from the combination of several factors: the spread of the Christian ideal, exemplified by Jesus’ active sacrifice for humanity’s redemptionץ Additionally, the fall of the Roman Empire brought about a change in the social structure, creating an upper class of warriors with diverse individual capabilities. This new warrior class had for the most part, ancient pagan-tribal values of honesty, loyalty, and more, which were brought about mostly by the new Germanic tribes. Biblical active morality combined with the power of a new society, brought to the world one of its most glorious movement – that of Chivalry.
The knight, as a moral ideal, is a person who must respond to the challenges that arise in his territory. His motto is akin to the boy scouts Moto: “Always Be Prepared!” The code of moral chivalry states is that if a knight receives a request for help and there is no moral reason to refuse, he must drop everything he is doing and assist the requester, especially when it involves righting a wrong.
Moral chivalry embodies a state of constant and active service to the community, characterized by active morality. A knight must not only respond to requests for help but also actively seek tasks to perform, injustices to correct, and opportunities to fulfill his role in the world. The knights’ confession included “forgive me for what I have done,” and additionally, “and for what I have not done and could have done”—emphasizing the proactive pursuit of adventure and moral duty.
According to author Scott Farrel (chivalrytoday.com), people have always sought a code of conduct to guide their behavior. However, chivalry was not a mandate imposed by the powerful on the weak, nor an intention imposed by the chosen ones on the masses. Instead, it was a system of restrictions voluntarily adopted by the powerful, understanding that their example would convey a message stronger than words and documents. Today, like the people of the Middle Ages, we hold considerable power in our hands, making the moral concept of chivalry highly relevant. We seek the satisfaction of knowing we did the right thing for the right reason and with the right principles, not because we were instructed to, but because we chose to. Chivalry is a choice—a choice to do the right thing for the right reason at the right time.
Chivalry was and still is a way of life characterized by an active pursuit of the good. The qualities of a knight do not stem from education, genetics, or environment but are the result of personal struggle and progress through various stages on the path to knighthood, connecting to something internal and essential within. A knight does not merely encounter evil and react to it; he consciously seeks out evil to combat it in his own realm. He can appear unexpectedly and save a seemingly hopeless situation, symbolizing hope in the world and for the world. He represents a good possibility that no one foresaw.
Spiritual Chivalry
The Crusades were only partially successful in their physical aims, but one of their significant byproducts was the intellectual and spiritual enrichment resulting from contact with the East. Europe was exposed to profound thoughts, reclaiming Greek philosophy and science from the Arabs, Christian mysticism from Eastern and Orthodox Christians, and esoteric knowledge from the Sufi brotherhood existing throughout the Muslim world, in Spain, Sicily, and the Middle East.
As a result, chivalry began to take on a more mystical, esoteric tone, evolving into a search for closeness to God and meaning in life, rather than merely seeking victory in battle. Alongside the importance of fighting and masculine qualities, an emphasis on court manners and gentlemanliness emerged. Honesty and courage were still valued, but nobility of spirit and sensitivity also became important, leading to the development of courtly love—Platonic love of the knight for the lady, who refined him through her influence.
It became evident that while the Crusades may have achieved some physical successes, they did not bring about the return of Jesus and the kingdom of Heaven, nor did they bring about the creation of a model and just society. On the contrary, the Crusades largely failed the moral tests of benevolence and humanity. This failure led to a paradoxical shift in emphasis from the “manly” way to the “feminine” way. Leading figures of the time recognized that strength alone was ineffective; the emphasis on warfare and masculinity had resulted in conflict and bloodshed, distancing people from God. Consequently, the chivalric movement, in the wake of the Crusades’ failure, introspectively changed its path and embraced the feminine side, expressed through the ideal of courtly love. The lady directed the knight in the final stages of his path, refining and improving him. Through thoughts of her, the knight connected to the higher part within himself, achieving a kind of mystical union with God.
The concept of war began to shift towards an inner struggle with ones weaknesses, starting from the 12th century, the chivalric movement developed a mystical and spiritual notion of internal struggle. This transformation was influenced by the establishment of monastic orders of knights and the developing mysticism and spirituality of the 12th century, which included the ideals of courtly love and holy femininity. A knight now had to fight for his own integrity to be worthy of his lady, opening himself to experiences previously unattainable. He moved in a world of images where thoughts materialized, and the distinction between enemy and friend was not always clear. This new purpose is vividly depicted in the Holy Grail stories written during this period.
The knight embarked on a journey toward holiness, the miraculous, and the divine. The journey required an internal struggle to overcome his weaknesses and connect with the feminine element, the subconscious, within him. He navigated a world of archetypes where miracles occurred. This spiritual journey was reflected in the symbolism developing within the church, a new type of Gothic architecture, new spiritual practices, the increasing importance of Mary, and the feminine in art and literature.
Spiritual chivalry was closely tied to the ideal of courtly love and the stories of the Holy Grail emerging in the courts of great queens like Eleanor of Aquitaine and Mary of Champagne in the late 12th century. These queens collaborated with influential church reformers such as Abbot Suger of St. Denis and Bernard de Clairvaux. Together with the Templar Order and other influential circles, they facilitated the revival of mysticism and philosophy within Christianity.
Wandering mistrals began to appear in the great Queens courts—minstrels who sang love songs and told wonderful stories. They were called troubadours, and they are the ones who elevated the ideal of courtly love, which was documented in books such as those by Andreas Capellanus. Schools of love were established, where the best youth were educated by the ladies of the court. The genre of chivalric romances developed and spread rapidly. The stories of the Holy Grail also appeared in these courts, portraying the quest for the Holy Grail as a journey of self-discovery. In this stories much is hidden beneath the surface, and the little that is visible is often misinterpreted.
In spiritual chivalry, colors and symbols hold great importance. One expression of this is the appearance of a new theory of symbols and colors called heraldry—a decoration of shields related to astrology. This code of decorations for family and personal shields of knights still exists among the noble houses in England to these days, but the original meaning of it was mostly lost.
By the 12th century, nobles were not necessarily knights, and knights were not necessarily nobles. However, during this period the two positions began to merge, and knighthood became hereditary. The French king Louis VI became a knight without his father’s knowledge, and thereafter, every French king was knighted. By the end of this process, the French king Louis IX was considered the ideal knight. Sons of nobles became squires, and entry into knighthood was conditional on being knighted by the king. The connection between royalty, nobility, and chivalry helped develop the ideal of spiritual and moral chivalry as a literary and social ideal, reflected in the stories of King Arthur, the Round Table, and the Holy Grail.
The English King Richard the Lionheart went on the Third Crusade inspired by the ideal of chivalry and influenced by his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, not solely for religious reasons. She likely read him stories of the knights of the round table before he went to sleep.
Eleanor of Aquitaine
The famous saying “cherchez la femme” could not be truer than in the case of Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204). She was the influential figure behind the Second and Third Crusades, the development of courtly love, Gothic architecture, Christian mysticism, and spiritual chivalry. Eleanor was the granddaughter of Guillaume IX, the first troubadour, the wife of Louis VII of France and later Henry II of England, and the mother of two of England’s kings, Richard the Lionheart and John Lackland.
In the 12th century, France was divided into duchies. Eleanor grew up in the court of Poitou in the south of France, receiving an exceptional education in astrology, arithmetic, history, music, literature, Latin, and dance. Her father died on his way to Santiago de Compostela when she was fifteen. Shortly after, she married the young Louis VII, becoming Queen of France, and moved to Paris, where she met Abbot Suger, of the Saint Denis Cathedral, and Bernard of Clairvaux, a theologian and clergyman who was the most influential figure of the period. Both men were part of a religious and social revolution that revived mysticism and brought enlightenment into Christianity, promoting study, literature and poetry.
In 1144, a dramatic meeting took place between Bernard of Clairvaux and Eleanor, during which she admitted her mistakes and received his blessing and authority. In essence, she became a personal student of the man who had founded the Templar Order, the Cistercian Silent Order, and developed the theology of worship and love for the holy feminine in the form of the Great Mother Mary. A few years later, influenced by Bernard, she vowed to join the Second Crusade after visiting the tomb of Mary Magdalene in Vézelay, where Bernard preached about this crusade in 1146.
Eleanor embarked on the Second Crusade in 1149 with her husband Louis VII, and legends tell of three hundred Amazons accompanying her. It was the first time a woman led her own army, and she was known for having strong opinions. Upon arriving in Antioch, she contacted her uncle Raymond of Antioch, leading to a dispute with Louis VII. She wanted to stay with Raymond and attack Aleppo, but Louis insisted on continuing to Jerusalem and forced her to accompany him. Realizing their incompatibility, Eleanor requested the annulment of their marriage on the grounds of consanguinity. For the remainder of the crusade, she distanced herself from the main camp. When they returned to Europe in 1151, they sailed on separate ships and sought the Pope’s permission for a divorce. On her way back from the Holy Land, she stopped in Palermo, where she stayed for several months at the court of learning and tolerance under the reign of Roger II the Norman.
According to my understanding, during her journey to the East, Eleanor was exposed to advanced cultures and completed her extensive education. The journey to Byzantium and Jerusalem at the age of 27 enriched her artistically and culturally, fostering a new perspective on her purpose and life destiny. Chroniclers and writers such as Odo of Deuil accompanied the journey. Her stay at the court of Emperor Manuel Comnenus in Constantinople revealed to her that Paris was not the center of the world. Constantinople’s enormous wealth of art, music, culture, and refinement left a significant impression on her, and she was also exposed to Christian mysticism through the writings of Dionysius the Areopagite. Additionally, she spent over a year in Jerusalem, where she met kings, Templars, pilgrims, and powerful women such as Queen Melisende. (In my opinion, she also encountered the mysticism and love poetry of the Sufis during this time.) Her experiences in the East made Eleanor want to break free from her marriage and the constraints of the French monastic court.
The marriage was dissolved on her initiative, and she subsequently married Henry II of the Plantagenet dynasty, who was eleven years her junior. In 1152, she separated from Louis VII through the Malouin Agreement, regaining her lands. Within eight weeks, she married Henry II, who was crowned King of England in 1154. Henry was a patron of art and learning. Eleanor, now free, established a court of poets and troubadours in Angers while she was the Duchess of Normandy. She continued this tradition when she moved to England, establishing similar courts in the palaces of London and Winchester.
Eleanor of Aquitaine supported writers such as Geoffrey of Monmouth, who authored “The History of the Kings of Britain.” This book ascribed Trojan origins to the first legendary English kingdoms, established with the arrival of Prince Aeneas’s descendants in Britain. Eleanor identified with the historical female figures in this story, essentially creating a new mythology for the British. Her literary patronage intensified when she later moved to her court in Aquitaine, France, then part of the empire of the House of Plantagenet established by Henry II, which included large parts of France, England, Scotland, and Wales.
Eleanor bore Henry eight children, but their relationship was stormy and unstable. Henry’s conflict with Thomas Becket, which ended in Becket’s murder in Canterbury in 1170, further strained their marriage. Eleanor apparently supported Becket, who had been her children’s educator, leading to a rift between her and Henry. During this time, Henry had an affair with Rosamund Clifford, which caused Eleanor to distance herself further. In 1169, Henry divided his estate and gave Richard, Eleanor’s favorite son, the regions of Aquitaine and Poitiers in southwest France. Thus, in 1170, Eleanor and Richard moved to Aquitaine, where she had been born and raised. At this stage of her life, Eleanor was independent, mature, and free. At 52 years old, with a wealth of experience, knowledge, and confidence in herself. According to historian Amy Kelly[1], she symbolized the end of male dominance and was determined to create a kingdom dedicated to Minerva, Venus, and the Virgin, centered on an intellectual court and an inner circle of students.
Eleanor returned to Poitiers and established a new court where troubadour poetry, courtly love, art, and culture (including Gothic architecture) were cultivated. In Poitiers, the principles of courtly love were taught and a court of love held. Under Eleanor’s protection were more than twenty sons of kings and nobles destined to rule Europe. These young men, who had only known war and violence, posed a danger to society, kings, and the church. Eleanor’s court provided them with an alternative education, emphasizing the values of chivalry, courtly love, and culture.
The French king needed help in curbing the unruly youth, so it was logical to support Eleanor’s efforts, provided that Mary of Champagne, the eldest daughter of Louis VII and Eleanor, would head the court—and she did. Together, Mary and Eleanor created a court of love and established laws of love, where it was taught that manners and correct behavior were tools for creating a civilized society. Along with other princesses, they developed a feminine ideal of the beloved, which led to the refinement of heart and thought.
Love became a classic universal theme, forming the basis of the new code of chivalrous ethical behavior. This code drew inspiration from the King Arthur stories, particularly the example of Sir Gawain. The court of love gave birth to ideals that spread across Europe, elevating the status of women from being seen as the cause of man’s fall to a position close to that of angels. In the code of Poitiers, the man was seen as the property of the woman.
Eleanor gathered princes, warriors, and princesses to the refined and magnificent hall in Poitiers, bringing them all under the influence of female nobility. This code resulted in a refinement of clothing, scents, environment, music, poetry, storytelling, and behavior.
However, in 1174, Eleanor was apparently involved in a rebellion against her husband, and after four years, King Henry destroyed the court in Poitiers, banished the queen, and returned her to England, placing her under house arrest in Salisbury Castle, where she remained from 1174 to 1189. Despite this, Mary of Champagne continued her work. She and a large part of the courtiers from Poitiers moved to Champagne in northeastern France and established a similar court, where the cultural and literary enterprise continued, giving rise to the first versions of the legends of the Holy Grail.
In 1189, Henry II died, and Eleanor was released, becoming the Queen of England. Her sons, Richard the Lionheart and John Lackland, followed her leadership, and she became a kind of supreme authority, experienced and all-powerful. Eleanor built the cathedral at Glastonbury, cultivated the stories and traditions of the Holy Grail, and connected them to the tales of King Arthur and the Round Table. She was very close to Richard the Lionheart, her chosen son, and lived long enough to witness and be involved in the reign of her second son, John Lackland. She represented a generation of nobles and queens with tremendous power.
Eleanor was the patron of the cathedral in Chartres (completed after her death) and many other buildings in France and England. She was also a patron of poets and writers. She created a network of family ties and commitments among the rulers of France, England, and Castile, which helped to maintain peace and prosperity, dialogue, and cooperation. This network was strengthened through her connection with the youth and the marriages of her many descendants.
History is often shaped by larger-than-life characters. According to Amy Kelly, the ideal of courtly love is essentially the work of one great woman—Eleanor of Aquitaine—the result of her life’s experience.
In the last two years of her life, Eleanor moved to Fontevraud Abbey in the Loire Valley, where she died in 1204. She was buried next to her husband Henry II and her son Richard the Lionheart, with a statue of her on her grave, holding a book in her hand.
[1] Eleanor of Aquitaine and the Four Kings, Amy Kelly.
