Zeitgeist (Spirit of the Time)

The pilgrimage to Jerusalem via “Via Palma” must be contextualized within its historical era, much like the contemporary revival of the pilgrimage to Santiago reflects the zeitgeist of our times. This chapter will delve into the chivalric ideal and the evolution of feudal society in the Middle Ages, which catalyzed the pilgrimage ethos and the formation of various historical routes. In other articles we will explore the history of the Crusader Kingdom in Israel, whose establishment facilitated the “Via Palma” development, along with other elements that bolstered the pilgrimage movement. This includes the knightly orders such as the Templars and Hospitallers, the Order of the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, and notable historical figures like Queen Melisenda and Frederick II, among others.

The ideal of Chivalry

In the 11th century, the notion of chivalry as a moral obligation began to crystallize, forming the foundation of what we recognize today as the principles of chivalry. Nobility and monarchs alike aspired to the knighthood, an ideal that was endorsed by the church. This support was manifested in the oaths and ceremonies of knighthood, typically conducted within the church at midnight, following a religious ritual. During this ceremony, a prospective knight would kneel before a seasoned knight who officiated the ordination. The ordaining knight would then lay a sword upon the initiate’s shoulders, moving from one to the other, while charging him with a solemn vow: to defend the Church, combat injustice, assist women and children in distress, and be a steadfast advocate of righteousness over malevolence. However, they were also reminded, “Jesus our Lord conquered kingdoms with the power of love, not the sword.”

The knight emerged as Europe’s new archetype, seeking avenues to combat injustice, safeguard the Church, and demonstrate his valor. The Crusades presented such an opportunity. While one could interpret the Crusades as a product of 11th-century economic and demographic shifts, or as a papal strategy endorsed by monarchs, their success hinged on their resonance with the people, particularly the knights who were the era’s predominant military force. What captivated them was the chivalric ideal: defending the Church and the social fabric, aiding the vulnerable, and confronting injustice, epitomized by the non-Christian control of the Holy Land and, most crucially, the Holy Sepulchre. In their eyes, the figure most in need of their support was Jesus himself, to whom they felt a profound debt. Undertaking the Crusades was, for them, a matter of honor to reciprocate for his sacrifice. Thus, the Crusades were viewed as the epitome of the chivalric ideal, perfectly aligning with the ethos of knighthood.

I contend that the knights who journeyed to the Land of Israel were motivated not by economic or political incentives but by religious and idealistic reasons. Embarking on a crusade was an arduous adventure lasting months or years, incurring substantial expenses, and many participants were aware that they might not return. Similar to how my grandfather, a Zionist who immigrated to Israel over a century ago, was not driven by economic motives, the knights pursued the Crusades out of ideological conviction and a desire to validate their worth to themselves and their peers. This undertaking was a manifestation of the chivalric ideals instilled in them from a young age. The prevailing belief in medieval Europe was that liberating the Holy Land from non-Christian dominion and establishing a Christian realm of justice in the regions where Jesus had lived and preached would precipitate his Second Coming and initiate the process of redemption. Naturally, who wouldn’t wish to be part of such a historic endeavor and contribute to it if possible?

Richard the Lionheart, a key figure of the Third Crusade, was more familiar with tales of the Knights of the Round Table and the quest for the Holy Grail than with the Bible, and he embarked on his journey to embody the knightly ideal. Throughout the Crusade to Israel, he expended a substantial portion of his wealth and nearly jeopardized his kingdom, deriving no tangible benefits from the endeavor.

The Crusading Knights dramatically seized control of Israel, maintaining their hold for nearly two centuries. As described by Yitzchak Hayut Man, the knightly ethos, in a valiant final stand, managed to capture Jerusalem and reclaim it from non-Christian forces. This represented the zenith of masculine endeavors in conquest and sacrifice, exceeding what was previously thought possible. It catalyzed a mass movement of individuals who left everything behind for years to venture into unfamiliar territories, braving risks that posed a significant chance of no return. The bravery, resolve, and dedication of the knights who heeded the Pope’s summons to liberate the Holy Sepulchre from non-Christian control command profound respect.

Being a knight carried the moral responsibility to answer calls for aid and tackle obstacles, no matter their severity. The principles of genuine chivalry clearly demand that a knight engage in the fight against injustice, with no moral grounds for refusal. When called to duty, a night is obliged to cease his current activities and accept the challenge head-on. Knights must maintain constant vigilance and dedication to serving the community, embodying a proactive approach to morality. It is not enough for knights to merely respond to pleas for help; they must also actively search for injustices to rectify. The knight’s journey is one of both correcting wrongs and seeking adventure. The Crusades represented such an unparalleled adventure, enlisting the entire Christian community in an epic journey that spanned great distances, posed significant hardships, and tested their resolve, all in the mission to reclaim the sacred sites of Jesus’s agony and resurrection from non-Christian control.

I contend that the knights journeying to the Holy Land  as part of the Crusades’, starting from the late 11th century, were motivated by a sense of honor owed to Jesus, seeking to repay this debt by liberating his burial site from non-Christian control. This act was also perceived as a means to expedite his return and establish the kingdom of heaven on Earth. Embarking on such a sacred mission epitomizes the very core of chivalry. Moreover, this quest entailed confronting and overcoming a formidable challenge, akin to facing a monster or dragon, represented by the Muslim opposition.

The crusading knights who ventured to the Holy Land were more familiar with the tales of Roland than with the Bible or the New Testament. In the unique setting of the Land of Israel, a new breed of knight emerged within the novel military monastic orders, marrying the chivalric ideal with the virtues of religious life. This fusion created a new archetype: the warrior in service of God. The Templar Order (Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon) was the first to embody this dual commitment, closely followed by the Hospitallers. These orders initially comprised mainly French knights but soon attracted members from across Europe. Eventually, German knights branched off to form their own distinct entity, known as the Teutonic Order.

Consequently, chivalry started to embody a more mystical and esoteric character, focusing on the quest for divine proximity and life’s meaning, rather than merely seeking victory in combat. This era saw an evolving emphasis not just on martial prowess and masculinity, but also on courtly manners and gentlemanly conduct. The knightly virtues expanded beyond mere honesty and bravery to include nobleness of spirit and emotional sensitivity. This shift was significantly influenced by exposure to the East, which facilitated intellectual and spiritual enrichment from the local Muslim and Christian cultures, often more advanced than those in Europe. This exchange reintroduced Greek philosophy and science, thanks to the Arabs, and enriched European culture with Christian mysticism from the Eastern and Orthodox traditions, as well as influences from Sufi Islam and Shiite mysticism prevalent in the Middle East.

The encounter with Eastern mysticism and philosophy shifted the chivalric ideal from its physical and moral foundations towards a more spiritual and, arguably, internal dimension. It became evident that the Crusades neither precipitated the return of Jesus nor established a model society, and they also fell short of moral standards regarding benevolence and humanity. This shortfall prompted a quest for alternative ideals, whether religious or secular, that could serve as a guiding light for the knights. Consequently, the concept of courtly love emerged as a significant cultural development.

The ideal of courtly love

By the 12th century, it was apparent to the era’s thought leaders that force was not the panacea for the ailments of Christian society. The chivalric focus on combat and masculinity had bred conflict and bloodshed, alienating men from God. The persistent setbacks of the Crusades—or their inability to effectuate meaningful change—prompted a self-reflective transformation within the chivalric movement. They metaphorically “saw” themselves, leading to a significant shift in values towards embracing the feminine virtues that had been neglected. This shift was epitomized by the development of the courtly love ideal, which celebrated the knight’s devotion to his lady and elevated the notion of sacred femininity, including reverence for Mary, the mother of Jesus. The holy Matrona emerged as a guiding figure for the knight in the final phases of his journey, serving to refine and perfect his character. Contemplation of her allowed him to connect with his higher self and achieve a form of mystical union with the divine, a theme vividly illustrated in Dante’s idealization of Beatrice in the Divine Comedy.

The battleground shifted from the external to the internal for the knight, who realized that to be worthy of the lady, he must first conquer his own shortcomings. This introspection unlocked experiences previously beyond his reach, transporting him into a realm where thoughts take tangible form and the line between foe and ally blurs. With this transformation, the knight’s quest gained a new dimension, prominently featured in the Holy Grail narratives that emerged during this era.

The knight’s journey became one of seeking sanctity, the miraculous, and the divine—the true battle lying within. Success on this path demanded overcoming personal flaws and embracing the feminine aspect within, symbolizing the subconscious. He navigated a realm of archetypes, where miracles were routine. This spiritual odyssey was mirrored in the evolving symbolism within the church, the advent of Gothic architecture, new spiritual disciplines, the elevated prominence of Mary, and innovations in art and literature, marking a profound shift in medieval spirituality and culture.

During the 12th century, an alliance formed between enlightened church reformers and the royal courts, especially under the influence of prominent queens like Eleanor of Aquitaine. This collaboration fostered an ideology that prized qualities divergent from traditional chivalric virtues, highlighting spiritual purity, innocence, and, significantly, the concept of romantic love, previously inconceivable. These themes were encapsulated in the Holy Grail stories, which debuted in the court of Mary of Champagne (Eleanor’s daughter). Chrétien de Troyes, funded by this court, was the first to document these tales. The narratives became the cultural staple for generations, including those who would later embark on Crusades and pilgrimages to the Holy Land.

Until the 12th century, there was a distinction between nobles and knights; not all nobles were knights, and not all knights came from noble backgrounds. However, during this period, the two classes began to merge, and the concept of knighthood-nobility started to be passed down through inheritance, elevating its status. This change meant that every French king was knighted, culminating in King Louis IX’s pilgrimage to Israel, where he epitomized the ideal knight and saint. Noble sons became squires, and entry into knighthood required a ceremony officiated by the king. The melding of royalty, nobility, and chivalry facilitated the evolution of the chivalric ideal into a comprehensive literary, social, moral, and spiritual concept, as epitomized by the tales of King Arthur, the Round Table, and the Holy Grail.

English King Richard the Lionheart embarked on the Third Crusade in Israel, motivated by the chivalric ideals instilled in him, largely under the influence of his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, and not solely for religious motives. It’s conceivable that she shared tales of knights with him during his childhood bedtime, much like Richard of Cornwall, the leader of the Barons’ Crusade, Frederick II, and numerous others who were instrumental in establishing the “Via Palma.”

Frederick II and the liberation of Jerusalem

Frederick II, the grandson of the iconic German King Frederick Barbarossa and son of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, and Constance, Queen of Sicily, was a remarkable individual fluent in seven languages and engaged in poetry and philosophy. His intellect was matched by his strong political ambitions. In southern Italy, Frederick established what could be considered the first modern state in Europe, where he reigned as an enlightened autocrat, fostering the arts and education as a philosopher-king. His unconventional beliefs and actions often put him at odds with Religious Catholic establishment, including the Pope, as well as orthodox Islam. Frederick was a proponent of freedom, vigorously defending his views and lifestyle with considerable success while also valuing dialogue and cooperation. He held the Muslim world in high regard, familiar with its language and customs, earning him the moniker “the wonder of the world.” Frederick is widely regarded as the first Renaissance man, a figure of monumental significance and influence.

For years, the popes pressed Frederick II to lead a crusade to Israel to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslim control, efforts he rebuffed to the point of being excommunicated. Nevertheless, when he embarked on the Sixth Crusade in 1228, he managed to return Jerusalem to Christian hands through negotiation rather than warfare, not spilling a single drop of blood. This agreement allowed Christians access to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, while Muslims retained control over the Temple Mount complex. The crusaders involved in this campaign initially constructed the Sea Citadel in Sidon, followed by the Monfort Citadel in the Galilee, and ultimately the Crusader city of Caesarea. Upon his arrival in Israel, Frederick married Isabel II, the heiress to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and was officially crowned King of Jerusalem in a grand ceremony at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

During this period, the tales of the Holy Grail were gaining popularity in Germany, with the most intricate and mystical version being “Percival,” likely authored between 1210-1220 by Wolfram von Eschenbach—a knight, poet, and possibly a monk from Bavaria, and perhaps Austria as well. This narrative came after Chrétien de Troyes introduced the first Grail stories in France around 1180. In Eschenbach’s rendition, the protagonist Percival reaches the enigmatic Grail Castle, where he is witness to marvels but fails to react appropriately. Consequently, he is compelled to undertake a prolonged, solitary quest spanning five years before he can locate the Grail Castle once more and assume the role of its Guardian. Throughout this voyage, Percival experiences significant growth and self-realization, including the discovery that he has a Muslim twin brother who matches him in both strength and virtue.

Percival’s character is captivating in the Grail narratives. Raised in seclusion by his mother, his life takes a dramatic turn upon encountering the Knights of the Round Table, disguised as Knights Templar, which inspires him to leave his forest home and aspire to knighthood at Arthur’s court. Percival represents a European echo of Jesus, embodying innocence and otherworldliness, destined to become the ideal king. This mirrors the life of Frederick II, who also grew up fatherless and embarked on a quest of self-discovery through extensive travels and his eventual campaign to reclaim Jerusalem. Percival and Frederick II share a narrative of emerging from isolation to achieve greatness, embodying ideals of purity, leadership, and spiritual questing.

The tale of Percival resonates with historical events, including Henry IV’s decision to alter the succession tradition of the Holy Roman Empire, establishing a hereditary system. This move aimed to forge a new German Norman state, universally Christian, under the rule of a divinely ordained monarch. Assisting in this endeavor was Berthold IV, Count of Andechs, who supported the young Frederick II amidst numerous contenders, facilitating his rise to power. Percival’s story thus reflects these political maneuvers, intertwining themes of divine kingship, struggles for succession, and the pursuit of authority and legitimacy.

Frederick II’s arrival in Jerusalem and his coronation as King of Jerusalem, alongside his roles as Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily, were viewed by the knights of the German Teutonic Order and the supporters of the German House of Staufen as a divine intervention—a heralding of redemption and a messianic emergence. He was revered as the Fisher King, the guardian of the Holy Grail, the heir to King Arthur, and the progenitor of the Holy Brotherhood. During this period, the Templar order experienced a decline in status, particularly after its defeat at the Battle of Hattin and the loss of its spiritual center in the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. The subsequent vacuum left by the Templars was partially filled by the German Teutonic Knights, whose order was established following the resumption of the Crusades and the reconquest of Acre in 1191.

The reconquest of Acre and the establishment of the Second Kingdom of Jerusalem were perceived as acts of redemption and a restoration of Christian honor following the humiliating defeat at the Battle of Hattin. This new kingdom endured for another century, enriched by the inclusion of German and English elements alongside the existing French and Italian influences. The Teutonic Knights demonstrated military prowess during the Fifth Crusade in Egypt, earning a reputation for their unwavering determination. They served as a cornerstone of Frederick II’s strategies and played a pivotal role in Crusader politics and Christian-Catholic affairs in the region. Hermann von Salza, the Grand Master of the Order, stood as Frederick II’s ally, offering support and acting as a mediator in his conflicts with the Pope, nobles, and other military orders in the Holy Land.

Frederick II’s conquest of Jerusalem and the subsequent annexation of a corridor of Christian control leading to it facilitated the development of the “Via Palma”. This corridor allowed pilgrims safer passage to the holy city. Additionally, Bethlehem came under Christian control as part of the agreement with the Muslims, further enhancing the pilgrimage destination. With the Franciscan presence established in Israel during this period, significant construction projects began across the region, many of which were associated with the “Via Palma” pilgrimage route and the holy sites along it.

The Barons’ Crusade

During the Second Kingdom of Jerusalem, not only did the Germans become influential, but also the English, notably exemplified by Richard the Lionheart’s pivotal role in the reconquest of the Holy Land. However, England soon plunged into civil strife. It was during this tumultuous period that Richard III of Cornwall emerged as one of the most intriguing figures in 13th-century Europe. Leading a lesser-known but successful crusade known as “The Crusade of the Barons”, which marked the pinnacle of development for the “Via Palma”.

Richard of Cornwall, the grandson of Eleanor of Aquitaine, was born to King John and served as the brother and main supporter of the weak King Henry III. Holding titles such as Earl of Cornwall in southwest England and Earl of Poitou in France, he was later crowned King of Germany. Yet, above all, Richard was renowned as one of the wealthiest individuals in Europe. He notably constructed Tintagel Castle in England, embodying the essence of the Arthurian legends.

The Crusade of the Barons, which unfolded from 1239 to 1241 in two stages, played a pivotal role in liberating significant parts of Israel from Muslim control. The first stage was spearheaded by Theobald I of Navarre, known as the “Troubadour,” while the second phase was led by Richard of Cornwall. Some accounts suggest that following this crusade, Christians held sway over the entire territory stretching from the sea to the Jordan River. Richard was instrumental in the construction of the Crusader stronghold in Ashkelon, and several landmarks along the Via Palma are attributed to his endeavors. Among the fortresses erected during this period is Apollonia Castle, bearing resemblance to Richard’s English castles, particularly those intertwined with the narratives of the Holy Grail.